Herbal Monograph
Calendula
Calendula officinalis L.
Asteraceae (Compositae)
Premier vulnerary and lymphagogue herb for wound healing, skin inflammation, ...
Overview
Plant Description
Annual or short-lived perennial herb, 30-70 cm tall, with an erect, branching, angular stem covered in fine glandular hairs. Leaves alternate, simple, sessile or semi-amplexicaul (clasping the stem), oblong-spatulate to oblanceolate, 5-17 cm long, 1-4 cm wide, with entire to slightly denticulate margins, covered with fine glandular trichomes on both surfaces, aromatic when crushed. Flower heads (capitula) solitary, terminal, 4-7 cm in diameter, composed of bright yellow to deep orange ligulate ray florets (1-3 rows in wild type, multiple rows in cultivated double forms) surrounding a disc of tubular florets. Involucral bracts in 1-2 rows, lanceolate, herbaceous, hairy. Fruits are achenes of three distinct morphological forms (boat-shaped, ringed/caterpillar-like, and hook-shaped), which is unusual among Asteraceae and aids seed dispersal by different mechanisms. Taproot system with lateral branching. The entire plant has a characteristic resinous-aromatic scent.
Habitat
Prefers full sun to partial shade. Tolerates a wide range of soil types but performs best in moderately fertile, well-drained soils with pH 5.5-7.0. Reasonably drought-tolerant once established. Frost-hardy to approximately -5C but performs best in temperate climates with mild summers. Self-seeds readily and may naturalize in disturbed ground, waste places, and roadsides in mild climates.
Distribution
Origin uncertain; likely native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, possibly derived from Calendula arvensis through cultivation. Now cultivated and naturalized worldwide in temperate and subtropical regions. Major production areas include Egypt, eastern and southern Europe (Hungary, Poland, Germany, Spain), India, and parts of North and South America. Widely cultivated in home gardens throughout the Northern Hemisphere.
Parts Used
Flower head (Calendulae flos — ligulate florets and whole capitula)
Preferred: Dried flower heads for infusion and tincture; infused oil (fixed oil maceration) for topical preparations; fresh flowers for tincture and poultice
The ligulate ray florets are the primary medicinal part and are the richest source of triterpenoid esters (particularly faradiol monoesters), flavonoids, and carotenoids. Whole flower heads including the involucre and disc florets are also used. The European Pharmacopoeia and EMA monograph specify 'Calendulae flos' (the dried ligulate florets, sometimes with accompanying disc florets) as the official drug. The sticky resinous coating on the florets contains concentrated triterpenoids responsible for anti-inflammatory activity. Double-flowered cultivars have more ligulate florets per head and are thus preferred for medicinal use.
Leaf (Calendulae folium)
Preferred: Fresh leaf poultice
Leaves are used in some folk traditions, primarily as poultices for bruises and minor wounds. They contain lower concentrations of active triterpenoids compared to the flowers. Not included in any major pharmacopeial monograph. Use is secondary and not well documented in clinical literature.
Key Constituents
Triterpenoids and triterpenoid esters
The triterpenoid fraction — particularly the faradiol monoesters — is the primary driver of calendula's anti-inflammatory and wound-healing activity. The anti-inflammatory effect has been demonstrated in multiple experimental models including the croton oil ear edema test, carrageenan-induced paw edema, and adjuvant arthritis models. Faradiol monoesters inhibit both the lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathways of arachidonic acid metabolism. The EMA assessment report identifies the triterpenoid ester fraction as a key marker of quality for Calendula preparations.
Flavonoids
The flavonoid fraction contributes antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and spasmolytic activity. Flavonoids synergize with the triterpenoid fraction in wound healing by reducing oxidative stress at the wound site and improving local microcirculation via capillary-stabilizing effects. The total flavonoid content is used as a quality marker alongside triterpenoids in some pharmacopeial standards.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids contribute to the antioxidant capacity of calendula extracts and are responsible for the characteristic golden-orange pigmentation. They are lipophilic and are well-extracted into fixed oils (infused calendula oil). beta-Carotene supports skin health and tissue repair. Carotenoid content varies significantly between yellow and orange cultivars, with orange forms generally having higher total carotenoid content.
Volatile oil (essential oil)
Essential oil yield is low (0.02-0.3% from fresh flowers, highly variable). The volatile oil contributes mild antimicrobial activity and the characteristic aromatic scent but is not considered a major contributor to calendula's primary therapeutic actions (anti-inflammatory, vulnerary). The sesquiterpene-rich oil composition differs markedly from the monoterpene-dominant oils of many other Asteraceae.
Polysaccharides
The water-soluble polysaccharide fraction contributes to calendula's immunostimulant activity. Polysaccharides are extracted in aqueous preparations (infusions, decoctions) but not in lipophilic extracts (oils, ointments). This means the immune-modulatory activity of calendula infusions is partially attributable to polysaccharides, while topical oil-based preparations primarily deliver triterpenoids and carotenoids.
Other constituents
Minor constituents providing ancillary therapeutic effects. The mucilage fraction contributes to the soothing effect of calendula infusions on inflamed mucous membranes (oral, gastrointestinal). Coumarins add to the anti-inflammatory and spasmolytic profile.
Herbal Actions
Promotes wound healing
Calendula's most established and clinically important action. Promotes wound healing through multiple mechanisms: stimulation of granulation tissue formation, increased collagen synthesis and cross-linking, enhanced angiogenesis at the wound site, and increased wound tensile strength. Both topical and internal administration support tissue repair. The triterpenoid ester fraction (particularly faradiol monoesters) is the primary driver of this action. Commission E approved for wound healing. EMA monograph recognizes traditional use as 'an aid in healing of minor wounds.'
[1, 2, 4, 11]Reduces inflammation
Demonstrated in multiple experimental models (croton oil ear edema, carrageenan paw edema, adjuvant arthritis). Anti-inflammatory mechanism involves dual inhibition of COX and LOX pathways by triterpenoid esters, reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inhibition of NF-kB signaling. Topical anti-inflammatory effect on skin is the most clinically relevant application. Commission E approved for inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa.
[1, 2, 5, 12]Stimulates lymphatic drainage and reduces lymphatic congestion. This action is emphasized in the Western herbal tradition (Hoffmann, Mills & Bone) and distinguishes calendula from other vulnerary herbs. Indicated for swollen lymph nodes, lymphatic congestion, and chronic inflammatory conditions with lymphatic involvement. The mechanism is not fully elucidated but may relate to effects on lymphatic smooth muscle and local immune modulation.
[4, 5]Kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms
Demonstrated in vitro activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp.), some Gram-negative species, and fungi (Candida albicans). The essential oil and flavonoid fractions contribute most to antimicrobial activity. Activity is moderate and insufficient as sole treatment for established infection, but contributes to wound infection prevention in the context of topical wound care.
[2, 13]Relieves smooth muscle spasm
Spasmolytic activity on smooth muscle demonstrated in vitro. Relevant to gastrointestinal use — calendula infusion reduces intestinal cramping and spasm. This action, combined with the anti-inflammatory and mucilage content, supports use in gastritis and peptic conditions.
[1, 4]Stimulates and enhances immune response
Water-soluble polysaccharide fraction stimulates phagocytosis by granulocytes and activates macrophages in vitro. The immunostimulant activity is most relevant in aqueous preparations (infusions) rather than lipophilic extracts. Contributes to resistance against wound infection when used topically and supports systemic immune function when taken internally.
[5, 14]Therapeutic Indications
Skin / Integumentary
Minor wounds, cuts, abrasions, and lacerations
Commission E approved indication. EMA traditional use monograph: 'as an aid in healing of minor wounds.' Topical application of calendula preparations promotes granulation tissue formation, collagen synthesis, and epithelial migration. Used as ointment, cream, infused oil, or diluted tincture wash.
[1, 2, 11]Radiation-induced dermatitis
Pommier et al. (2004) RCT of 254 breast cancer patients found calendula ointment significantly reduced incidence of acute radiation dermatitis (grade 2+) compared to trolamine (41% vs 63%, P<0.001) with lower pain scores. However, a subsequent trial (Sharp et al., 2013) found no significant difference between calendula and aqueous cream. Evidence is mixed; calendula may be beneficial but is not definitively superior to standard emollients.
[9, 10]Leg ulcers and chronic wounds
Traditional use in European herbalism for varicose ulcers and other chronic wounds that are slow to heal. Calendula's combination of vulnerary, antimicrobial, and lymphatic-decongestant actions is theoretically well suited to chronic wounds with associated lymphedema. Clinical evidence is largely from case series and traditional reports.
[4, 5]gastrointestinal
Gastritis and peptic ulceration
Internal use as infusion for gastric and duodenal inflammation. Anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, and mucilaginous properties protect and soothe inflamed gastric mucosa. Hoffmann recommends calendula infusion for gastritis, gastric and duodenal ulcers. Commission E approved for internal use in inflammatory conditions of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa.
[1, 4]Biliary insufficiency and sluggish digestion
Cholagogue action stimulates bile production and flow. Used traditionally for right-upper-quadrant discomfort, sluggish digestion, and mild biliary dysfunction. Combine with other cholagogues (dandelion, artichoke) for enhanced effect.
[4]lymphatic-immune
Swollen lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy)
Calendula is one of the principal lymphagogue herbs in Western herbalism. Used internally (infusion or tincture) for palpable, enlarged lymph nodes associated with infection, chronic inflammation, or lymphatic stagnation. Hoffmann specifically recommends calendula for 'enlarged or inflamed lymph nodes.' Often combined with cleavers (Galium aparine) for lymphatic drainage.
[4, 5]Pelvic lymphatic congestion
Traditional use for pelvic inflammatory conditions with associated lymphatic stagnation. Used in gynecological formulas for chronic pelvic congestion, endometriosis-associated inflammation, and post-surgical lymphedema. The combination of lymphagogue and anti-inflammatory actions is considered synergistic for pelvic conditions.
[4, 5]Reproductive System
Delayed or irregular menstruation
Mild emmenagogue action. Traditional use for amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea with cold, congestive presentation. Often combined with other emmenagogues in formula. Clinical evidence limited to traditional reports.
[4]Energetics
Temperature
warm
Moisture
slightly dry
Taste
Tissue States
damp/stagnation, cold/depression, lax/atony
Calendula is warming and slightly drying in Western energetic assessment. Its bitterness supports digestive and hepatobiliary function; its pungency stimulates circulation and lymphatic movement; and its sweetness reflects the nourishing, tissue-restorative quality. Indicated for cold, damp, congestive tissue states with poor healing and lymphatic sluggishness. Hoffmann describes it as one of the most versatile herbs in the materia medica, combining vulnerary, anti-inflammatory, and lymphatic actions in a gentle, well-tolerated package.
Traditional Uses
European traditional herbalism
- Topical wound healing for cuts, abrasions, and ulcers
- Treatment of inflammatory skin conditions
- Internal use for gastric and duodenal ulceration
- Lymphatic decongestant for swollen glands
- Cholagogue for biliary insufficiency
- Emmenagogue for delayed menstruation
- Gargle for pharyngitis and oral ulceration
"Hoffmann (2003): 'Calendula is one of the best herbs for treating local skin problems. It may be used safely wherever there is an inflammation on the skin, whether due to infection or physical damage. It is ideal for first aid treatment of minor burns and scalds... Internally it is used in the treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcers, and inflammation of the oral pharynx. The lymphatic drainage actions of calendula make it useful for enlarged or inflamed lymph nodes and as an essential component of pelvic inflammatory disease formulations.'"
[4]
German phytotherapy (Commission E / ESCOP)
- Internal: Inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa
- External: Poorly healing wounds, venous leg ulcers
- External: Wound healing and skin inflammation
"Commission E approved internal use for 'inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa' and external use for 'wound healing' and 'poorly healing wounds.' ESCOP expanded indications include 'inflammatory conditions of the skin and mucosa, and as an aid to healing of minor wounds.'"
Eclectic medicine (American)
- Topical for indolent ulcers and varicose veins
- Internal for gastric ulceration and hepatic congestion
- Tincture for swollen lymph glands
- Treatment for menstrual disorders with pelvic congestion
"Felter and Lloyd (King's American Dispensatory, 1898): 'Calendula is an excellent local remedy. It is useful in wounds, in chronic ulcers, varicose veins, and wherever in fact there is a tendency to suppuration... Internally it has been used in chronic gastric and duodenal ulcer, in jaundice, and in scrofulous enlargement of the lymphatic glands.'"
[15]
Ayurvedic medicine
- Treatment of skin diseases and wounds
- Anti-inflammatory for joint conditions
- Fever reduction (diaphoretic)
- Eye complaints (external wash)
"In Ayurvedic tradition, calendula is used for skin healing and inflammation. It is classified as having bitter and pungent tastes, warming energy, and is used to pacify Kapha and Vata doshas. Applied externally for wound healing, fungal infections, and inflammatory skin conditions."
[16]
Modern Research
Wound healing
Systematic review of calendula extract for wound healing evaluating clinical and pre-clinical evidence.
Findings: Givol et al. (2019) systematically reviewed clinical and pre-clinical evidence for calendula in wound healing. Six clinical trials were identified, but only one was of adequate methodological quality. Pre-clinical studies consistently demonstrated accelerated wound closure, enhanced granulation tissue formation, increased collagen deposition, and improved wound tensile strength. The review concluded there is biological plausibility for calendula's wound-healing effects but called for more rigorous clinical trials.
Limitations: Only one of six identified clinical trials was of good methodological quality. Statistical pooling was not possible due to heterogeneity. Most evidence derives from animal models and in vitro studies.
[11]
Radiation dermatitis prevention
Randomized controlled trial comparing calendula ointment to trolamine for prevention of acute radiation dermatitis in breast cancer patients.
Findings: Pommier et al. (2004) randomized 254 breast cancer patients receiving post-operative radiation therapy to calendula ointment or trolamine applied after each irradiation session. Calendula significantly reduced the incidence of grade 2+ acute dermatitis (41% vs 63%, P<0.001) and resulted in lower maximal pain scores (P=0.03). Patients in the calendula group also had fewer treatment interruptions due to skin toxicity.
Limitations: Single-blind design (patients were not blinded). Trolamine comparator rather than true placebo. Single-center study. A subsequent trial (Sharp et al., 2013) using a different comparator (aqueous cream) did not find significant benefit for calendula, raising questions about whether the Pommier result reflected calendula superiority or trolamine inferiority.
Anti-inflammatory mechanism
In vivo evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of triterpenoid esters from Calendula officinalis flowers.
Findings: Della Loggia et al. (1994) demonstrated that faradiol monoesters isolated from calendula flowers produced dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in the croton oil ear edema model in mice. The faradiol-3-O-myristate and faradiol-3-O-palmitate fractions showed activity comparable to indomethacin at equivalent doses. Free faradiol was less active than its esterified forms. The triterpenoid ester fraction was identified as the principal anti-inflammatory constituent of the lipophilic calendula extract.
Limitations: Animal model (mouse ear edema). Topical application only. Dose extrapolation to human clinical use is indirect.
[12]
Antimicrobial activity
In vitro evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Calendula officinalis extracts against clinical isolates.
Findings: Efstratiou et al. (2012) evaluated methanolic and aqueous extracts of calendula against a panel of bacterial and fungal clinical isolates. Extracts demonstrated activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis) and Candida albicans. Activity against Gram-negative organisms was limited. The methanolic extract showed stronger antimicrobial activity than the aqueous extract, suggesting lipophilic constituents contribute more to antimicrobial effects.
Limitations: In vitro study only. MIC values were relatively high compared to conventional antibiotics. Clinical relevance of antimicrobial activity as adjunctive wound care is plausible but not confirmed by clinical trials.
[13]
Immunostimulant polysaccharides
Investigation of immunostimulant properties of Calendula officinalis polysaccharides.
Findings: Wagner et al. (1985) isolated water-soluble polysaccharide fractions from calendula flowers and demonstrated stimulation of phagocytic activity of human granulocytes in vitro. The polysaccharide fraction also activated macrophages and enhanced carbon clearance in vivo (mouse model), indicating systemic immunostimulant potential. The active polysaccharides were characterized as heteroglycans containing galactose, rhamnose, arabinose, and galacturonic acid.
Limitations: In vitro and animal studies. Clinical significance of immunostimulant activity in humans at standard oral doses not established.
[14]
Preparations & Dosage
Infusion (Tea)
Strength: 1-2 g dried flowers per 250 mL water
Pour 250 mL boiling water over 1-2 teaspoons (1-2 g) of dried calendula flowers. Cover and steep for 10-15 minutes. Strain. Can be used internally as a tea or externally as a wash, compress, or gargle.
1-2 g dried flowers per cup, 3 times daily (internal use); as a gargle or mouth rinse several times daily (oral mucosa inflammation)
3 times daily for internal use; as needed for external washes and gargles
Topical: until wound healed. Internal: 2-4 weeks, then reassess. For oral mucosa: until resolution of inflammation.
Half adult dose for children over 6 years; topical use suitable for all ages
Aqueous infusion extracts polysaccharides, flavonoids, and water-soluble compounds but does not efficiently extract triterpenoid esters (lipophilic). For wound healing where triterpenoids are desired, oil-based or tincture preparations are preferred topically. Infusion is most appropriate for internal use (gastric inflammation, biliary support) and as a gargle.
Tincture
Strength: 1:5 dried flower in 45-70% ethanol; 1:2 fresh flower in 70-90% ethanol
Macerate dried calendula flowers in 45-70% ethanol at a ratio of 1:5 for 2-4 weeks. Press and filter. Fresh flower tincture prepared at 1:2 ratio in 70-90% ethanol.
1-4 mL of 1:5 tincture (in 45-70% ethanol), 3 times daily for internal use. For topical use, dilute 1:3 with water as a wound wash.
3 times daily for internal use; as needed for topical applications
2-4 weeks internal course, then reassess
Not recommended for internal use under 12 years without practitioner guidance. Topical diluted tincture wash suitable for children.
Tincture extracts both water-soluble (flavonoids, polysaccharides) and lipophilic (triterpenoid esters) constituents more effectively than aqueous infusion alone. Diluted tincture applied topically to wounds provides both antimicrobial (ethanol) and wound-healing (triterpenoid, flavonoid) activity. Fresh flower tincture is often preferred by practitioners for its higher triterpenoid content.
topical
Strength: Infused oil: dried flowers in carrier oil at approximately 1:5 ratio by weight. Ointment: typically 2-5% calendula extract in an ointment base.
Infused oil: Fill a jar with dried calendula flowers, cover completely with a carrier oil (olive oil, sunflower oil, or sweet almond oil). Macerate for 4-6 weeks in a warm location, shaking daily. Strain through cheesecloth and press. Alternatively, use gentle heat method: warm oil and flowers at 40-50C for 4-8 hours in a double boiler. The infused oil can be used directly or as a base for ointments, creams, and salves.
Apply liberally to affected area 2-3 times daily as needed
2-3 times daily or as needed
Until healing is complete
Suitable for all ages including infants (for diaper rash, cradle cap, minor skin irritation)
Oil-based preparations are the primary vehicle for topical delivery of the lipophilic triterpenoid esters (faradiol myristate, faradiol palmitate) that drive the anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects. Calendula-infused oil is one of the most widely used herbal preparations in European phytotherapy and is the basis for most commercial calendula skin care products. Can be combined with other vulnerary herbs (comfrey, plantain) in ointment formulations.
Poultice
Strength: Fresh flowers applied directly
Apply warmed, moistened fresh or dried calendula flowers directly to the wound or affected area. Cover with a clean cloth or gauze. Replace every 2-4 hours.
Sufficient quantity to cover the affected area
Apply fresh poultice every 2-4 hours or as needed
Until wound healing progresses; transition to oil or ointment for later-stage healing
Suitable for all ages
Poultice is the simplest and most traditional form of topical application. Fresh flowers are preferred as they deliver both lipophilic (triterpenoids) and hydrophilic (polysaccharides, flavonoids) constituents directly to the wound. Useful as first aid in the field when other preparations are unavailable.
[4]
Safety & Interactions
Class 1
Can be safely consumed when used appropriately (AHPA Botanical Safety Handbook)
Contraindications
Cross-reactive allergic contact dermatitis may occur in individuals with known sensitization to other Asteraceae species (ragweed, chrysanthemum, chamomile, arnica, etc.). Sesquiterpene lactones, though present in only low amounts in calendula compared to some other Asteraceae, can trigger allergic reactions in sensitized individuals. Patch testing is advised for individuals with known Asteraceae sensitivity before topical use.
Drug Interactions
| Drug / Class | Severity | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|
| Sedative/hypnotic medications (CNS depressants) | theoretical | Animal studies have shown mild sedative and hypnotic effects of calendula extracts at high doses. Theoretical additive CNS depression with concurrent sedative use. |
| Antihypertensive medications (Antihypertensives) | theoretical | Animal studies suggest mild hypotensive activity. Theoretical additive blood pressure reduction. |
Pregnancy & Lactation
Pregnancy
likely safe
Lactation
likely safe
Topical use of calendula during pregnancy and lactation is considered safe and is widely used without reported adverse effects. Internal use at standard doses is likely safe based on the long traditional use record and lack of adverse event reports, but some sources advise caution in early pregnancy due to traditional classification as a mild emmenagogue. No teratogenic effects have been reported. The EMA monograph does not recommend internal use during pregnancy due to insufficient data, though this reflects regulatory caution rather than documented harm. Topical use is explicitly safe. During lactation, topical calendula is commonly used for cracked nipples and is considered safe for both mother and nursing infant.
Adverse Effects
References
Monograph Sources
- [1] Blumenthal, M., Busse, W.R., Goldberg, A., et al.. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. American Botanical Council / Integrative Medicine Communications (1998) . ISBN: 978-0965555500
- [2] Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC). European Union herbal monograph on Calendula officinalis L., flos (Revision 1). European Medicines Agency (2018)
- [3] ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy). ESCOP Monographs: The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products — Calendulae flos. ESCOP / Thieme (2003) . ISBN: 978-1901964073
- [4] Hoffmann, D.. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press (2003) . ISBN: 978-0892817498
- [5] Mills, S., Bone, K.. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine (2nd edition). Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier (2013) . ISBN: 978-0443069925
- [6] Gardner, Z., McGuffin, M. (eds.). American Herbal Products Association's Botanical Safety Handbook (2nd edition). CRC Press (2013) . ISBN: 978-1466516946
- [7] British Herbal Medicine Association. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. BHMA (1983)
- [8] Brinker, F.. Herbal Contraindications and Drug Interactions (4th edition). Eclectic Medical Publications (2010) . ISBN: 978-1888483147
Clinical Studies
- [9] Pommier, P., Gomez, F., Sunyach, M.P., et al.. Phase III randomized trial of Calendula officinalis compared with trolamine for the prevention of acute dermatitis during irradiation for breast cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology (2004) ; 22 : 1447-1453 . DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2004.07.063 . PMID: 15084618
- [10] Sharp, L., Finnila, K., Johansson, H., et al.. No differences between Calendula cream and aqueous cream in the prevention of acute radiation skin reactions — results from a randomised blinded trial. European Journal of Oncology Nursing (2013) ; 17 : 429-435 . DOI: 10.1016/j.ejon.2012.11.003 . PMID: 23246484
- [11] Givol, O., Kornhaber, R., Visentin, D., et al.. A systematic review of Calendula officinalis extract for wound healing. Wound Repair and Regeneration (2019) ; 27 : 548-561 . DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12737 . PMID: 31145533
- [12] Della Loggia, R., Tubaro, A., Sosa, S., et al.. The role of triterpenoids in the topical anti-inflammatory activity of Calendula officinalis flowers. Planta Medica (1994) ; 60 : 516-520 . DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-959562 . PMID: 7809204
- [13] Efstratiou, E., Hussain, A.I., Nigam, P.S., et al.. Antimicrobial activity of Calendula officinalis petal extracts against fungi, as well as Gram-negative and Gram-positive clinical pathogens. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice (2012) ; 18 : 173-176 . DOI: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2012.02.003 . PMID: 22789794
- [14] Wagner, H., Proksch, A., Riess-Maurer, I., et al.. Immunostimulating polysaccharides (heteroglycans) of higher plants. Arzneimittel-Forschung (1985) ; 35 : 1069-1075 . PMID: 4062787
Traditional Texts
- [15] Felter, H.W., Lloyd, J.U.. King's American Dispensatory (18th edition, 3rd revision). Ohio Valley Company (1898)
- [16] Sapkota, B., Kunwar, P.. A Review on Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities of Calendula officinalis Linn. Natural Product Communications (2024) . DOI: 10.1177/1934578X241259021
Pharmacopeias & Reviews
- [17] European Pharmacopoeia Commission. European Pharmacopoeia — Calendulae flos (Calendula Flower). Council of Europe / EDQM (2023)
Last updated: 2026-03-01 | Status: published
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