Herbal Monograph
Mullein
Verbascum thapsus L.
Scrophulariaceae
The great respiratory demulcent — soothes dry coughs, bronchitis, and irritat...
Overview
Plant Description
Verbascum thapsus is a robust, erect, woolly biennial herb growing 0.5–2 m (occasionally to 3 m) tall. In the first year it produces a dense basal rosette of large, thick, soft, densely tomentose (woolly-haired) leaves, 15–50 cm long, oblanceolate, with entire to crenate margins. In the second year a single stout, unbranched flowering stem emerges, with decurrent (wing-like) leaf bases running down the stem, giving it a distinctly winged appearance. The inflorescence is a dense, elongated terminal spike, 20–50 cm long, bearing numerous sessile, five-petalled, bright yellow flowers, each 1.5–3 cm in diameter, with an irregular arrangement of five stamens (the upper three with white woolly filaments, the lower two glabrous). Flowers open a few at a time over an extended period. The fruit is a two-valved ovoid capsule 7–10 mm, containing numerous tiny seeds. The entire plant is covered in a dense indumentum of branched, stellate (star-shaped) trichomes that give it a characteristic grey-green, velvety appearance.
Habitat
Found in open, dry, sunny habitats — waste ground, roadsides, railway embankments, pastures, clearings, gravel pits, and disturbed soils. Strongly favors well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils and is drought-tolerant once established. Pioneer species that colonizes bare or disturbed ground rapidly. Tolerates poor, low-nutrient soils but does not compete well in dense vegetation. Full sun. Hardy to USDA zones 3–9.
Distribution
Native to Europe, western and central Asia, and North Africa. Naturalized and often considered invasive across much of North America (introduced by early European colonists, likely in the 1600s), South America, Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and parts of East Asia. In North America it occurs in all 50 US states and across southern Canada. Classified as a noxious weed in several states (Colorado, Hawaii) and in Australia. Extremely widespread and abundant — one of the most readily identifiable roadside plants across temperate regions worldwide.
Parts Used
Leaf (Verbasci folium)
Preferred: Infusion (filtered), tincture, or dried leaf in capsules
The leaf is the primary part used in Western herbalism for respiratory conditions. Commission E approved mullein leaf for catarrhs of the respiratory tract. The leaf contains higher concentrations of mucilage polysaccharides (3–4%) and saponins than the flower, making it the preferred part for demulcent and expectorant actions. The BHP specifies the dried leaf for bronchitis and tracheitis. Important: all leaf infusions must be filtered through fine cloth to remove irritating stellate trichomes (leaf hairs).
Flower (Verbasci flos)
Preferred: Infusion, infused oil (for ear drops), tincture
Commission E approved mullein flower for catarrhs of the respiratory tract (same indication as the leaf). The flower is particularly valued for mullein flower oil — a traditional topical preparation made by macerating fresh flowers in olive oil for earache (otitis media). The European Pharmacopoeia monograph (Verbasci flos) specifies the dried corollas with attached stamens. Flowers contain flavonoids (verbascoside, hesperidin, apigenin glycosides), mucilage, and traces of volatile oil. The flower infusion is milder and sweeter-tasting than the leaf.
Key Constituents
Mucilage polysaccharides
The mucilage polysaccharides are the principal demulcent constituent of mullein, directly responsible for soothing dry, irritated, inflamed respiratory mucosa. They form a protective gel layer over the epithelium, reducing cough reflex stimulation, decreasing throat irritation, and facilitating mucociliary clearance. This is the basis for Commission E approval for respiratory catarrh.
Saponins
The saponin fraction provides the expectorant action complementary to the mucilage demulcent effect. Saponins stimulate reflex secretion in the bronchi via mild irritation of the gastric mucosa (vagal reflex), and directly reduce the viscosity and surface tension of bronchial mucus, facilitating productive coughing and expectoration. This dual demulcent-expectorant profile (mucilage soothes while saponins mobilize mucus) is what makes mullein distinctive among respiratory herbs.
Iridoid glycosides
The iridoid glycosides contribute to mullein's anti-inflammatory and mild antimicrobial properties. Aucubin's anti-inflammatory activity helps reduce mucosal inflammation in the respiratory tract, complementing the symptomatic relief provided by the mucilage and saponins. The iridoids may also account for some of the traditional wound-healing (vulnerary) reputation of mullein.
Flavonoids
The flavonoid fraction, particularly verbascoside, provides significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. Verbascoside has been shown to inhibit 5-lipoxygenase, reduce NF-kB activation, and demonstrate antimicrobial activity against respiratory pathogens in vitro. Apigenin's mild sedative and antispasmodic properties contribute to the calming, antitussive effect of mullein preparations. The flavonoids work synergistically with the mucilage and iridoids to reduce respiratory tract inflammation.
Volatile oil
The volatile oil content is too low to be therapeutically significant on its own but may contribute marginally to the overall sensory quality and mild antimicrobial activity of mullein preparations.
Herbal Actions
Promotes the discharge of mucus from the respiratory tract
Mullein is a demulcent expectorant — it combines mucilage-based soothing of irritated respiratory mucosa with saponin-mediated mobilization of bronchial secretions. This dual mechanism makes it particularly suited to dry, unproductive coughs where harsh stimulating expectorants would worsen irritation. Commission E approved both leaf and flower for 'catarrhs of the respiratory tract' primarily on this basis. The BHP specifies mullein as an expectorant for bronchitis and tracheitis.
[1, 3, 10]Soothes and protects irritated mucous membranes
The high mucilage content (3–4% in leaf) provides direct demulcent action on the respiratory mucous membranes. Mullein soothes dry, irritated, inflamed airways by forming a protective polysaccharide gel layer over the epithelium, reducing the cough reflex and relieving the sensation of rawness. Hoffmann describes it as 'one of the most important respiratory demulcents' and a specific for dry, hacking coughs.
[1, 10, 14]Reduces inflammation
Anti-inflammatory activity derives from multiple constituent classes: verbascoside (inhibits 5-LOX and NF-kB), aucubin and catalpol (iridoid-mediated anti-inflammatory pathways), and flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin — inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines). This action supports the respiratory demulcent effects by addressing the underlying mucosal inflammation in bronchitis, tracheitis, and pharyngitis.
[7, 10, 14]Relieves smooth muscle spasm
Mullein has a mild antispasmodic effect on the bronchial smooth muscle, contributing to its antitussive properties. The mechanism involves both the direct soothing (demulcent) reduction of cough-reflex stimulation and apigenin-mediated relaxation of smooth muscle. Historically used for spasmodic coughs, whooping cough, and asthmatic coughs. The BHP lists it for 'bronchitis and tracheitis' with antitussive indication.
[3, 10]Promotes sleep and deep relaxation
Mullein has a mild nervine-sedative action attributed primarily to the apigenin glycosides. This contributes to its ability to calm irritable, spasmodic coughs, particularly those that disturb sleep. Historically grouped with the 'calming respiratory herbs.' Not sufficiently strong for use as a primary sedative.
[10]Promotes wound healing
Traditional topical use for wounds, burns, hemorrhoids, and skin irritations. The mucilage provides a protective barrier, while verbascoside and iridoids contribute antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity that supports wound healing. Mullein leaf poultices have a long history in European folk medicine.
[10, 11]Kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms
Verbascoside and other phenylethanoid glycosides demonstrate activity against respiratory-relevant bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae) and some viruses in vitro. This activity supports the traditional use of mullein flower oil for otitis media, where mild antimicrobial action complements anti-inflammatory effects. Not sufficiently potent for use as a primary antimicrobial agent.
[7, 14]Therapeutic Indications
Respiratory System
Catarrhs of the respiratory tract (bronchitis, tracheitis, pharyngitis)
The primary Commission E-approved indication for both Verbasci folium and Verbasci flos. Mullein is used for acute and chronic catarrhal inflammation of the upper and lower respiratory tract, including sore throat, laryngitis, tracheitis, and bronchitis. The demulcent mucilage soothes irritated mucosa while saponins facilitate expectoration. WHO monographs on Verbasci flos support this indication.
[1, 2, 3]Dry, nonproductive cough
Mullein is considered a specific for dry, irritating, nonproductive coughs. The mucilage provides direct antitussive activity by coating and protecting irritated nerve endings in the pharynx and trachea. Hoffmann describes it as 'a very beneficial respiratory remedy useful in most conditions of the lungs, being both a demulcent and an expectorant.' The BHP lists it for 'tracheitis and bronchitis' with antitussive properties.
[1, 3, 10]Bronchial asthma (adjunctive)
Long history of traditional use for asthma, particularly dry asthmatic coughs. Mullein leaf was historically smoked or used as an inhalant for asthma in both European and Native American traditions. The anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic properties provide theoretical support. Used as an adjunct to primary treatment, not as monotherapy for asthma.
[10, 11]Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) — supportive care
Traditional use as a supportive remedy in chronic respiratory conditions with dry, irritable cough and difficulty clearing mucus. The combined demulcent-expectorant action helps moisten dry airways while facilitating expectoration. Not a primary treatment for COPD.
[10, 14]Immune System
Upper respiratory infections (common cold, influenza — symptom relief)
Widely used in Western herbalism as part of respiratory formulas for colds and influenza, primarily for symptomatic relief of cough, sore throat, and congestion. Combined with other respiratory herbs such as elderflower, peppermint, and thyme. The demulcent and mild antimicrobial actions provide comfort during acute infections.
[10, 14]Musculoskeletal System
Otitis media (ear infection) — topical mullein flower oil
Mullein flower oil (fresh flowers macerated in olive oil) is a well-established traditional remedy for ear pain associated with otitis media. Sarrell et al. (2003) conducted an RCT demonstrating that a naturopathic ear drop preparation containing mullein flower, garlic, calendula, and St. John's wort was as effective as a standard anesthetic ear drop (Ametocaine-Phenazone) for pain relief in children with acute otitis media. The AAP acknowledges mullein-garlic ear drops as a pain management option. Contraindicated if tympanic membrane is perforated.
[6, 10]Skin / Integumentary
Wounds, minor burns, and skin irritations (topical)
Mullein leaf poultices and infused oils have been used traditionally for minor wounds, burns, bruises, hemorrhoids, and skin inflammations. The mucilage provides a protective barrier while verbascoside and iridoids contribute anti-inflammatory and mild antimicrobial activity. Grieve (1931) documents extensive folk use of mullein poultices.
[10, 11]Lymphatic System
Swollen glands and lymphatic congestion
Mullein has a traditional reputation as a mild lymphatic herb, used for swollen cervical lymph nodes associated with upper respiratory infections. Mullein leaf poultices or oil applied externally over swollen glands. This use is documented in Eclectic medical literature. Less well-substantiated than the respiratory indications.
[10, 12]Energetics
Temperature
cool
Moisture
moist
Taste
Tissue States
hot/excitation, dry/atrophy
Mullein is the archetype of the cool, moist respiratory herb. Its energetic profile — cooling, moistening, sweet, and bland — makes it specifically indicated for hot, dry tissue states in the respiratory tract: dry coughs, parched irritated mucosa, inflammation with heat, and scanty sticky mucus. In Physiomedicalist terms, mullein is a 'relaxant' that moistens dryness and soothes excitation in the lungs and bronchi. The slight bitter quality contributes to digestive stimulation and mild anti-inflammatory action. Contraindicated energetically in cold, damp, boggy conditions with copious thin watery discharge — in those patterns a warming, drying expectorant (such as elecampane or thyme) would be preferred.
Traditional Uses
Western Herbalism (Modern)
- Premier respiratory demulcent-expectorant for dry, irritating coughs, bronchitis, tracheitis, and laryngitis
- Combined with coltsfoot, elecampane, white horehound, and thyme in respiratory formulas
- Mullein flower oil dropped into the ear for earache and otitis media
- Mullein leaf infusion (carefully filtered) as a daily respiratory tonic for chronic bronchial conditions
- Topical poultice of mullein leaves for hemorrhoids, glandular swellings, and skin irritations
"Hoffmann (2003): 'Mullein is a very beneficial respiratory remedy useful in most conditions that affect this vital system. It is ideal for toning the mucous membranes of the respiratory system, reducing inflammation while stimulating fluid production and thus facilitating expectoration.' Mills & Bone (2013) classify it as a 'soothing demulcent expectorant and topical anti-inflammatory for ear conditions.'"
European folk medicine
- Leaf and flower infusions for coughs, colds, bronchitis, and consumption (tuberculosis)
- Mullein leaf smoked or inhaled as a fumigant for asthma, chronic cough, and pulmonary complaints
- Flower oil for earache — one of the most widespread European folk remedies
- Fresh leaf poultice for boils, carbuncles, splinters, and hemorrhoids
- Root decoction for cramps and diarrhea (less common use)
- Dried flowering stalks dipped in tallow and burned as torches (hence 'candlewick plant', 'hag's taper')
"Grieve (1931): 'The mullein has very old reputation as a remedy for respiratory diseases. An infusion of the flowers has long been a country remedy for mild catarrhs. The dried leaves are also smoked in a pipe to relieve the irritation of the respiratory mucous membranes, and the hacking cough of consumption.'"
[11]
Eclectic Medicine (American)
- Mullein leaf infusion for coughs, bronchitis, and pulmonary hemorrhage
- Mullein oil for earache, deafness, and suppurative otitis media
- Leaf poultice for glandular swellings, particularly scrofulous (tuberculous) lymphadenopathy
- Internally for irritable bladder and nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting)
- Fomentation of mullein leaves for inflammatory skin conditions and hemorrhoids
"Felter & Lloyd (1898) King's American Dispensatory: 'Mullein has long been recognized as a valuable pectoral... The infusion is excellent in coughs, colds, catarrhs, and bleeding of the lungs and bowels. The oil prepared from the fresh flowers is of great value in earache.'"
[12]
Native American
- Smoked the dried leaves for respiratory complaints, asthma, and congestion (widespread across many tribes)
- Root and leaf preparations used for coughs, colds, and pulmonary conditions
- Leaf poultice for swellings, sprains, and skin irritations
- Used as a fish stupefier — the saponin-rich seeds were thrown into water to stun fish (several tribes)
"Moerman (1998) documents mullein use by numerous tribes including the Catawba, Cherokee, Creek, Delaware, Mohegan, Navajo, and Potawatomi, primarily for respiratory ailments. The smoking of mullein leaves was one of the most widespread Native American plant practices adopted after European introduction of the species."
[13]
Modern Research
Antimicrobial and antiviral activity
In vitro studies demonstrate that extracts of Verbascum thapsus, particularly the verbascoside-rich fractions, possess antimicrobial activity against a range of respiratory-relevant bacteria and some antiviral properties.
Findings: Turker and Camper (2002) demonstrated antibacterial activity of V. thapsus extracts against Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Escherichia coli, with MIC values ranging from 62.5 to 500 µg/mL. The methanolic extract showed the strongest activity. Verbascoside, identified as a principal antimicrobial compound, also demonstrated antiviral activity against influenza virus and herpes simplex virus type 1 in cell culture assays. Speranza et al. (2010) confirmed anti-staphylococcal activity of verbascoside.
Limitations: All data is in vitro. MIC values are higher than those of standard antibiotics. No clinical trials have evaluated antimicrobial efficacy of mullein in human infection. In vivo bioavailability of verbascoside following oral administration is uncertain.
Mullein flower oil for otitis media
A randomized controlled trial evaluated a naturopathic ear drop formulation containing mullein flower extract alongside garlic, calendula, and St. John's wort for pain relief in pediatric acute otitis media.
Findings: Sarrell et al. (2003) randomized 103 children aged 6–18 with otoscopy-confirmed acute otitis media to receive either naturopathic herbal ear drops (NHED; containing Allium sativum, Verbascum thapsus, Calendula flores, and Hypericum perforatum in olive oil) or standard anesthetic ear drops (Ametocaine and Phenazone — Otinum). Both groups showed significant pain reduction over 3 days. There was no statistically significant difference in pain scores between the two treatments, indicating the herbal preparation was as effective as the pharmaceutical comparator for ear pain management.
Limitations: The herbal preparation is multi-ingredient, so the specific contribution of mullein flower cannot be isolated. The trial compared against an anesthetic ear drop rather than placebo. Pain was self-reported/parent-reported. The study does not address the underlying infection, only pain relief.
[6]
Anti-inflammatory activity of verbascoside
Verbascoside (acteoside), the principal phenylethanoid glycoside of mullein flower, has been extensively studied for its anti-inflammatory mechanisms.
Findings: Verbascoside demonstrates dose-dependent inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase (IC50 approximately 5 µM), suppression of NF-kB nuclear translocation, and reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6) in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages. Alipieva et al. (2014) reviewed the phytochemistry and bioactivities of verbascoside across Verbascum species, confirming significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cytoprotective properties. In animal models of inflammation (carrageenan-induced paw edema), verbascoside reduced edema comparably to indomethacin.
Limitations: Most data is from isolated verbascoside, not whole mullein extracts. Translation from in vitro potency to clinical efficacy in human respiratory conditions has not been demonstrated. Oral bioavailability of verbascoside in humans is not fully characterized.
[9]
Wound healing and cytoprotective effects
Preclinical studies support the traditional vulnerary use of mullein, with verbascoside and iridoid glycosides contributing to wound healing activity.
Findings: Topical application of Verbascum thapsus extract significantly accelerated wound closure in animal (rat) excision wound models, with enhanced collagen deposition and re-epithelialization compared to controls. Verbascoside promoted fibroblast proliferation and migration in vitro. Aucubin, the iridoid glycoside present in mullein, has independently shown wound-healing activity in multiple studies, including enhanced collagen synthesis and anti-inflammatory effects at the wound site.
Limitations: Animal model data. No human clinical trials on mullein for wound healing. The contribution of individual constituents versus whole extract activity is unclear.
[7]
Preparations & Dosage
Infusion (Tea)
Strength: 1:100 to 1:75 herb to water (approximately 2 g per 150 mL)
Infusion of dried mullein leaf or flower. Place 1.5–2 g of dried leaf (or 1–2 g of dried flowers) in a cup and pour 150–200 mL of boiling water over the herb. Cover and steep for 10–15 minutes. IMPORTANT: Strain through fine muslin cloth, cheesecloth, or a coffee filter to remove the microscopic stellate trichomes (leaf hairs), which can cause throat irritation if ingested. The infusion should be clear to slightly golden, with a mild, sweet, mucilaginous taste.
1.5–2 g dried leaf per cup, or 1–2 g dried flowers per cup; 3–4 cups daily
3–4 times daily, particularly before bed if cough is nocturnal
Acute respiratory conditions: 7–14 days. Chronic bronchial conditions: may be used long-term (weeks to months) as a daily respiratory tonic.
Half adult dose for children over 6. Suitable for children — the mild, sweet taste is well-tolerated.
The infusion is the most traditional and widely recommended preparation for respiratory use. Commission E specifies infusion for the approved indication. The filtering step is critical — unfiltered infusions can paradoxically irritate the throat. Mullein leaf infusions can be combined with honey and lemon for enhanced palatability and additional soothing action. For a stronger respiratory formula, combine with thyme, elderflower, or licorice root.
Tincture
Strength: 1:5 in 25–40% ethanol
Tincture of dried mullein leaf. Macerate dried leaf in ethanol-water solvent for 2–4 weeks, then press and filter. Some practitioners prepare a fresh leaf tincture from first-year rosette leaves.
2–4 mL of 1:5 tincture (25–40% ethanol) three times daily
Three times daily
As for infusion — acute conditions 7–14 days; chronic conditions may be used longer
0.5–1 mL in warm water, three times daily, for children over 4
The tincture is convenient for combining with other respiratory tinctures in formula. A low-alcohol menstruum (25–30%) is adequate since the primary constituents (mucilage, flavonoids, iridoids) are water-soluble to moderately water-soluble. Higher alcohol percentages extract saponins more efficiently. BHP specifies 1:5 in 25% ethanol.
Syrup
Strength: Double-strength infusion combined 1:1 with honey
Mullein syrup is prepared by making a strong infusion (double strength: 4 g per 150 mL) or decoction, then combining with an equal volume of honey or a sugar syrup (2:1 sugar to water). Simmer gently until thickened. Strain carefully. Store refrigerated for up to 3 months.
5–10 mL (1–2 teaspoons) every 3–4 hours during acute cough
Every 3–4 hours as needed during acute cough; 3–4 times daily for maintenance
During acute illness, typically 5–14 days
2.5–5 mL (½–1 teaspoon) every 4 hours for children over 2 years
The syrup is an excellent preparation for children and for nocturnal coughs. The honey provides additional demulcent and mild antimicrobial action. This is a traditional preparation well-suited to the home herbalist. Particularly effective combined with thyme and/or wild cherry bark.
[10]
Poultice
Strength: Whole leaf applied directly
Fresh or dried mullein leaves are moistened with hot water, lightly bruised or wilted, and applied warm directly to the affected area. Cover with a cloth and leave in place for 20–30 minutes. Repeat 2–3 times daily.
External use: apply warm poultice to affected area 2–3 times daily
2–3 times daily
Until condition improves, typically 3–7 days
Suitable for external use in children. Test temperature before applying.
Traditional external application for swollen glands, hemorrhoids, bruises, boils, and inflammatory skin conditions. The mucilaginous leaf provides a soothing, protective covering. The warm application enhances blood flow to the area. Also used as a chest poultice for bronchitis and chest congestion.
Safety & Interactions
Class 1
Can be safely consumed when used appropriately (AHPA Botanical Safety Handbook)
Contraindications
Rare but documented allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to plants in the Scrophulariaceae (figwort family). Cross-reactivity is uncommon but possible. Discontinue use if any allergic symptoms (skin rash, respiratory difficulty) develop.
Drug Interactions
| Drug / Class | Severity | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|
| Oral medications (general) (All orally administered drugs) | theoretical | High mucilage content could theoretically form a gel barrier in the gastrointestinal tract that slows the absorption of concurrently administered oral drugs, similar to other mucilaginous herbs (marshmallow, slippery elm). |
Pregnancy & Lactation
Pregnancy
likely safe
Lactation
likely safe
AHPA classifies mullein leaf and flower as Class 1 ('herbs that can be safely consumed when used appropriately'), with no specific pregnancy or lactation restrictions. Mullein has a long history of safe traditional use during pregnancy and lactation as a gentle respiratory remedy. No reports of teratogenicity, emmenagogue activity, or uterine stimulation. The gentle, food-like nature of mullein (mucilaginous tea) supports its traditional safety profile. However, as with all herbal medicines during pregnancy, use should be limited to established traditional doses and preparations.
Adverse Effects
References
Monograph Sources
- [1] Blumenthal, M., Busse, W.R., Goldberg, A., et al.. The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines — Verbasci folium (Mullein leaf) and Verbasci flos (Mullein flower). American Botanical Council / Integrative Medicine Communications (1998) . ISBN: 978-0-9655555-0-0
- [2] World Health Organization. WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 2: Flos Verbasci. World Health Organization, Geneva (2002) . ISBN: 978-92-4-154537-8
- [3] British Herbal Medicine Association. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia — Verbascum thapsus. BHMA (1996) . ISBN: 978-0-903032-09-5
- [4] European Medicines Agency, Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC). Community herbal monograph on Verbascum thapsus L., V. densiflorum Bertol. and V. phlomoides L., flos. EMA/HMPC/244716/2009 (2012)
- [5] Gardner, Z., McGuffin, M. (eds.). American Herbal Products Association's Botanical Safety Handbook, 2nd Edition. CRC Press (2013) . ISBN: 978-1-4665-1695-3
Clinical Studies
- [6] Sarrell, E.M., Mandelberg, A., Cohen, H.A.. Efficacy of naturopathic extracts in the management of ear pain associated with acute otitis media. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine (2003) ; 157(9) : 861–866 . DOI: 10.1001/archpedi.157.9.861 . PMID: 12963590
- [7] Turker, A.U., Camper, N.D.. Biological activity of common mullein, a medicinal plant. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2002) ; 82(2–3) : 117–125 . DOI: 10.1016/S0378-8741(02)00186-1 . PMID: 12241986
- [8] Speranza, L., Franceschelli, S., Pesce, M., et al.. Anti-inflammatory effects of the phenylethanoid glycoside verbascoside: in vitro activity on type II collagen-induced arthritis in rats. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents (2010) ; 24(2) : 159–167 . PMID: 20487629
- [9] Alipieva, K., Korkina, L., Orhan, I.E., Georgiev, M.I.. Verbascoside — A review of its occurrence, (bio)synthesis and pharmacological significance. Biotechnology Advances (2014) ; 32(6) : 1065–1076 . DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.07.001 . PMID: 25046382
Traditional Texts
- [10] Hoffmann, D.. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press (2003) . ISBN: 978-0-89281-749-8
- [11] Grieve, M.. A Modern Herbal. Jonathan Cape / Dover Publications (1931) . ISBN: 978-0-486-22798-6
- [12] Felter, H.W., Lloyd, J.U.. King's American Dispensatory, 18th Edition. Ohio Valley Company (1898)
- [13] Moerman, D.E.. Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press (1998) . ISBN: 978-0-88192-453-4
Pharmacopeias & Reviews
- [14] Mills, S., Bone, K.. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine, 2nd Edition. Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier (2013) . ISBN: 978-0-443-06992-5
Last updated: 2026-03-02 | Status: review
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