Herbal Monograph
Myrrh
Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.
Burseraceae
Ancient resinous healer for oral inflammation, wounds, and pain -- 3,000 years of continuous use
Overview
Plant Description
Commiphora myrrha is a small, thorny, deciduous tree or large shrub reaching 3-5 meters (rarely up to 9 meters) in height with a spreading, irregular crown. The trunk is short, often gnarled and twisted, with a pale grey to silvery bark that peels in papery flakes or curling strips, revealing a green inner bark (phloem). The branches are thick, knotted, and frequently spine-tipped, giving the tree a scrubby, armed appearance well-suited to its arid habitat. Leaves are trifoliate (compound with three leaflets), small (1-4 cm), and deciduous, appearing briefly during the short rainy season. The terminal leaflet is larger than the two lateral leaflets. Leaves are leathery, grey-green, with crenate or serrate margins. Flowers are small, inconspicuous, reddish, and borne in short panicles; they are dioecious (male and female flowers on separate trees). The fruit is a small, ovoid drupe, approximately 1 cm long, with a smooth, leathery outer layer surrounding a single hard stone. The most significant feature of the plant is its resin-producing system: the bark contains specialized secretory cells (schizogenous ducts) that produce the oleo-gum-resin known commercially as myrrh. When the bark is naturally cracked or deliberately incised, this resin exudes as a pale yellowish, viscous liquid that rapidly hardens upon exposure to air into irregular, reddish-brown to dark brown tears or masses (often called 'tears of myrrh') with a characteristic warm, balsamic, slightly medicinal aroma and a bitter, aromatic taste.
Habitat
Commiphora myrrha grows in hot, arid and semi-arid environments, typically in dry bushland, scrubland, and rocky limestone hillsides at elevations of 250-1300 meters above sea level. It thrives in regions receiving less than 500 mm annual rainfall and tolerates extreme heat, poor soils, and extended drought. The species is characteristically found on shallow, well-drained calcareous and limestone soils, often on rocky slopes, ridges, and in wadis (dry riverbeds). It frequently grows in association with other Commiphora species, Acacia, Boswellia (frankincense trees), and Euphorbia in the characteristic Somali-Masai Commiphora-Acacia bushland ecological zone. The trees are highly drought-adapted, shedding their leaves during dry periods and producing resin partly as a defense mechanism against insect damage and water loss.
Distribution
Native to the Horn of Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. The primary range includes Somalia (the single largest source of commercial myrrh), Ethiopia (particularly the Ogaden region), Eritrea, Djibouti, and northeastern Kenya. On the Arabian Peninsula, it occurs in Yemen (especially the Hadhramaut region) and southwestern Oman (the Dhofar region, historically the 'Land of Frankincense and Myrrh'). Somalia and Ethiopia together account for the vast majority of global myrrh production. Small populations also occur in northern Sudan. The species does not extend naturally to India, where the related C. wightii (guggul) occupies a similar ecological niche. The ancient myrrh trade routes connected the Horn of Africa and southern Arabia to Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, India, and China -- one of the oldest documented trade networks for a medicinal commodity, active for at least 3,000 years.
Parts Used
Oleo-gum-resin (Myrrha)
Preferred: Dried resin tears (whole or powdered) for tincture, decoction, or encapsulation; essential oil by steam distillation for topical and aromatic use; powdered resin for capsules or external application
The dried oleo-gum-resin exuded from incisions in the bark is the official drug in all pharmacopeias. It consists of three main fractions: volatile oil (2-10%, primarily sesquiterpenes), water-soluble gum (30-60%, polysaccharides), and alcohol-soluble resin (25-40%, commiphoric acids and related compounds). The resin tears are reddish-brown to dark brown externally, with a yellowish to reddish-brown interior that is often semi-translucent. It has a characteristic warm, balsamic, aromatic odor and a bitter, slightly acrid, persistently aromatic taste. Pharmacopeial standards (British Pharmacopoeia, European Pharmacopoeia) specify minimum volatile oil content (typically not less than 1.5-3% for whole myrrh) and specific identity tests.
Key Constituents
Volatile oil (essential oil, 2-10% of oleo-gum-resin)
The volatile oil fraction is responsible for myrrh's characteristic aroma and contains the analgesic and antimicrobial sesquiterpenes that are among its most distinctive pharmacological features. The furanosesquiterpenes (furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, lindestrene, curzerene) are the key active compounds unique to myrrh, providing analgesic activity through opioid receptor interaction (a rare mechanism among medicinal plants), broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects, and anti-inflammatory action. Volatile oil content and composition are primary quality markers for commercial myrrh. Steam distillation yields myrrh essential oil used in aromatherapy and topical preparations.
Resin fraction (alcohol-soluble, 25-40% of oleo-gum-resin)
The resin fraction provides the astringent, vulnerary, and anti-inflammatory properties that underpin myrrh's longstanding use in wound care and oral/mucosal inflammation. The commiphoric acids and related triterpenes contribute to tissue-tightening effects on mucous membranes, making myrrh particularly effective for oral and pharyngeal applications (stomatitis, gingivitis, pharyngitis). The resin compounds also demonstrate antimicrobial activity that complements the volatile oil fraction. The resin fraction is soluble in alcohol and is efficiently extracted by tincture preparations.
Gum fraction (water-soluble, 30-60% of oleo-gum-resin)
The gum fraction is the largest component by weight and contributes demulcent and protective properties to myrrh preparations. The arabinogalactan polysaccharides may possess immunomodulatory activity similar to other plant arabinogalactans (e.g., from Echinacea or Astragalus), though this has been less studied for myrrh specifically. The gum fraction acts as a natural emulsifier and carrier for the volatile oil and resin components, enabling their slow release and sustained contact with mucous membranes. In traditional preparations (aqueous decoctions and mouthwashes), the gum fraction is the primary component extracted.
Additional bioactive compounds
These additional compounds contribute to the broad-spectrum antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activity of myrrh. The polypodane triterpenes (myrrhanol A, myrrhanone A) are of particular interest as potent anti-inflammatory agents with demonstrated activity comparable to NSAIDs in animal models. The complex chemical diversity of myrrh -- with active compounds distributed across the volatile oil, resin, and gum fractions -- supports the traditional use of whole oleo-gum-resin preparations rather than isolated fractions.
Herbal Actions
Kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms
Myrrh's broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity is among its most well-documented and clinically relevant properties. The volatile oil and resin fractions demonstrate significant antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive organisms (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus mutans) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Antifungal activity has been demonstrated against Candida albicans and dermatophytes. The antimicrobial effect is primarily attributed to the sesquiterpene-rich volatile oil and the commiphoric acid-containing resin fraction. Commission E and EMA monographs specifically recognize myrrh for topical application to inflamed oral and pharyngeal mucosa, where antimicrobial action is a key mechanism. The antimicrobial activity of myrrh has been validated in multiple in vitro studies and supports its traditional use for wound infections, oral infections, and skin conditions.
[1, 3, 7, 10]Tightens and tones tissue, reduces secretions
Myrrh is a significant astringent agent, tightening and toning mucous membranes and inflamed tissue. The resin fraction, rich in commiphoric acids and tannin-like compounds, precipitates surface proteins on mucosal tissue, creating a protective layer that reduces secretions, exudation, and further irritation. This astringent action is the primary mechanism behind myrrh's effectiveness for oral and pharyngeal conditions -- stomatitis, gingivitis, pharyngitis, aphthous ulcers -- where it reduces bleeding, swelling, and discharge. The astringent property also contributes to its wound-healing activity by promoting tissue contraction and reducing weeping from wounds. Commission E specifically recognizes the topical astringent action on oral and pharyngeal mucosa.
[1, 4, 5]Reduces inflammation
Multiple constituent classes in myrrh contribute to significant anti-inflammatory activity. The sesquiterpenes in the volatile oil (furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, curzerene) inhibit pro-inflammatory mediator production. Myrrhanol A (a polypodane triterpene) demonstrated anti-inflammatory potency comparable to indomethacin in the rat adjuvant arthritis model, suppressing elevated levels of nitric oxide and TNF-alpha. Al-Harbi et al. (1997) documented anti-inflammatory effects in multiple animal models. The resin acids (commiphoric acids) also contribute to the overall anti-inflammatory profile. This multi-target anti-inflammatory action supports myrrh's traditional use for inflammatory conditions of the oral cavity, skin, and joints.
[1, 8, 10]Promotes wound healing
Myrrh's wound-healing (vulnerary) action is among its most ancient and persistent traditional applications. The combination of antimicrobial, astringent, and anti-inflammatory properties creates a synergistic wound-healing effect: antimicrobial compounds prevent or address infection, astringent resin compounds promote tissue contraction and reduce exudation, and anti-inflammatory constituents reduce swelling and pain. Myrrh stimulates leukocyte activity at wound sites, promoting phagocytosis of debris and pathogens. Traditional use for wound healing spans at least 3,000 years across Egyptian, Greek, Arabic, Indian, and Chinese medical traditions. The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1550 BCE) documents myrrh in wound treatment formulas. Topical application as a tincture, diluted essential oil, or resin powder directly on wounds and ulcers is the traditional method.
[4, 5, 11]Relieves pain
Myrrh possesses a distinctive and pharmacologically noteworthy analgesic mechanism. Dolara et al. (2000) demonstrated that furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and other sesquiterpenes from myrrh interact with opioid receptors in the central nervous system, providing analgesic effects that were blocked by naloxone (an opioid antagonist) in animal models. This opioid receptor-mediated analgesia is unusual among plant medicines and provides a scientific rationale for myrrh's extensive historical use as a pain reliever in wound care, dental pain, and labor. The analgesic effect is mild to moderate compared to pharmaceutical opioids but meaningful in context of herbal applications. Al-Harbi et al. (1997) confirmed significant analgesic activity in the hot-plate and acetic acid writhing tests in mice.
[7, 8, 10]Promotes the discharge of mucus from the respiratory tract
Myrrh acts as a stimulating expectorant, promoting the discharge of mucus from the respiratory tract. The volatile oil and resin components stimulate bronchial secretions and ciliary activity when absorbed systemically or when inhaled as vapour. This expectorant action supports its traditional use for productive cough, bronchitis, and catarrhal conditions of the respiratory tract. In Eclectic medicine, myrrh was specifically indicated for 'chronic catarrhal conditions with excessive, relaxed secretions' -- reflecting its combined expectorant and astringent action that helps resolve boggy, atonic mucosal states. The warming, drying energetic profile is consistent with the type of respiratory congestion it traditionally addresses.
[4, 5, 12]Stimulates or increases menstrual flow
Myrrh has been used as an emmenagogue (to stimulate or increase menstrual flow) across multiple traditional systems for millennia. In TCM, Mo Yao is classified as a blood-moving (huo xue) herb that breaks blood stasis. Ayurvedic tradition similarly employs myrrh for amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea associated with stagnation. The mechanism is not fully characterized but may involve stimulation of uterine smooth muscle contractions and increased pelvic blood flow. This emmenagogue action is the primary basis for the pregnancy contraindication (AHPA Class 2a). The effect is considered secondary in strength -- myrrh is not as potent an emmenagogue as herbs like Artemisia vulgaris or Tanacetum vulgare.
[4, 6, 13]Relieves intestinal gas and bloating
The aromatic volatile oil in myrrh provides mild carminative (gas-relieving) and digestive-stimulating effects. The bitter and aromatic taste stimulates digestive secretions through the bitter reflex and aromatic stimulation of gastric activity. In Unani and Ayurvedic medicine, myrrh is valued as a digestive stimulant for cold, sluggish digestion. The carminative action is mild compared to primary carminatives like peppermint or fennel, but contributes to myrrh's overall utility in digestive formulas.
[4, 5]Stimulates digestive secretions via bitter taste receptors
Myrrh has a distinctly bitter taste that stimulates digestive secretions via the bitter reflex arc (bitter receptors on the tongue trigger vagal stimulation of gastric, biliary, and pancreatic secretion). While not as intensely bitter as classic bitters like gentian or wormwood, the bitter quality of myrrh contributes to its digestive-supporting properties and aligns with its traditional inclusion in digestive and tonifying formulas across multiple traditions.
[4]Therapeutic Indications
Digestive System
Stomatitis, gingivitis, and oral mucositis
The flagship pharmacopeial indication for myrrh. Commission E (1998) issued a positive monograph specifically approving myrrh tincture for topical treatment of mild inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) traditional use monograph similarly endorses this indication. Myrrh tincture applied topically to inflamed gums, mouth ulcers, and oral mucous membranes provides combined antimicrobial, astringent, and anti-inflammatory effects. Myrrh is a common ingredient in natural toothpastes and mouthwashes. Clinical experience and long traditional use support efficacy for gingivitis, stomatitis (including aphthous stomatitis), and post-extraction soreness.
[1, 2, 3, 5]Pharyngitis and sore throat
Commission E approves myrrh for inflammation of the pharyngeal mucosa. Myrrh tincture used as a gargle (diluted in warm water) provides local antimicrobial, astringent, and anti-inflammatory effects on inflamed pharyngeal tissue. Particularly indicated for chronic, atonic pharyngitis with lax, pale mucous membranes rather than acute, hot, inflamed sore throat. Frequently combined with other antimicrobial and astringent herbs (sage, calendula, propolis) in throat gargle formulas.
[1, 2, 4]Dyspepsia and sluggish digestion
Traditional use across multiple systems as a digestive stimulant for cold, sluggish digestion with poor appetite, bloating, and flatulence. The bitter and aromatic properties stimulate gastric secretions and improve digestive motility. In Unani medicine, myrrh is specifically employed as a digestive tonic (mushtahi) for weak stomach conditions. In Eclectic medicine, myrrh was indicated for 'atonic dyspepsia with relaxed mucous membranes.' Not a primary digestive remedy but useful as a component in digestive formulas.
[3, 4, 12]Skin / Integumentary
Wounds, cuts, and abrasions (topical)
One of the oldest documented wound-healing agents in human medicine, with continuous use spanning at least 3,000 years across Egyptian, Greek, Arabic, Chinese, and European traditions. Myrrh's combination of antimicrobial, astringent, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties provides a multi-mechanism approach to wound healing. Applied topically as diluted tincture, diluted essential oil, or powdered resin directly to wounds. Particularly valued for slow-healing, infected, or atonic wounds. The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1550 BCE) contains multiple wound treatment formulas including myrrh. Greek and Roman military surgeons carried myrrh for battlefield wound care.
[4, 5, 10, 11]Skin ulcers and boils
Traditional use for chronic skin ulcers, boils (furuncles), and indolent sores that fail to heal properly. The antimicrobial action addresses underlying infection, while the astringent and vulnerary properties promote tissue repair. In Unani and Ayurvedic medicine, myrrh is applied to chronic ulcers and abscesses to promote discharge of pus and subsequent healing. Particularly suited to cold, atonic ulcers with pale, lax granulation tissue rather than hot, acutely inflamed lesions.
[3, 4, 12]Minor fungal skin infections
In vitro studies have demonstrated antifungal activity of myrrh essential oil and resin extracts against Candida albicans and common dermatophytes (Trichophyton, Microsporum species). Topical application of myrrh tincture or diluted essential oil may be useful as an adjunct for minor fungal skin conditions. Clinical evidence is limited to traditional use and in vitro data.
[10]Respiratory System
Productive cough and bronchial catarrh
Traditional use as a stimulating expectorant for chronic productive cough with excessive, thick mucus. The warming, drying energetic profile makes myrrh particularly suited to damp, cold respiratory conditions with copious, pale sputum. In Eclectic medicine, myrrh was indicated for 'chronic bronchial catarrh with profuse secretions and enfeebled mucous membranes.' The volatile oil component contributes stimulating expectorant effects while the astringent resin helps tone lax bronchial mucosa. Often combined with other expectorants (elecampane, thyme, horehound) in respiratory formulas.
[4, 5, 12]Sinusitis and nasal congestion
Used traditionally as a steam inhalation or in nasal applications for sinusitis and chronic nasal congestion. The antimicrobial volatile oil and mucosal astringent properties help reduce infection and excessive secretions in the nasal and sinus passages. Limited clinical evidence but long traditional use supports this application.
[4]Reproductive System
Amenorrhea and scanty menstruation
Traditional emmenagogue use across multiple systems. In TCM, Mo Yao is a primary blood-moving herb used for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and 'blood stasis' patterns manifesting as dark, clotted, painful menstruation or absent menstruation. Ayurvedic tradition similarly employs Bol for menstrual irregularities associated with Vata and Kapha imbalance. Unani medicine uses myrrh as a uterine stimulant for suppressed menses. The mechanism may involve stimulation of uterine smooth muscle and increased pelvic circulation. This emmenagogue action is the basis for the pregnancy contraindication.
[4, 12, 13]Dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) with blood stasis
In TCM, the combination of Mo Yao (myrrh) and Ru Xiang (frankincense/Boswellia) is a classic paired formula for dysmenorrhea and other pain conditions associated with blood stasis. The blood-moving and analgesic properties of myrrh address the underlying stagnation pattern. Historically prescribed in formulas such as Shi Xiao San and other blood-activating prescriptions.
[13, 14]Immune System
Topical infection management
The broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of myrrh supports its traditional and current use for managing minor topical infections -- infected wounds, oral infections, and superficial skin infections. The Commission E-approved use for oral/pharyngeal mucositis implicitly recognizes the antimicrobial contribution. The volatile oil and resin fractions are both antimicrobially active, providing dual-mechanism coverage against bacteria and fungi.
[1, 3, 10]Parasitic infections (schistosomiasis)
Mirazid, a myrrh-based proprietary drug developed in Egypt, was investigated in clinical trials for treatment of schistosomiasis (Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium). Sheir et al. (2001) reported promising initial results with significant cure rates. However, subsequent larger studies yielded mixed results, with some showing lower efficacy than praziquantel (the standard treatment). The drug received temporary registration in Egypt but its role remains controversial. Additional studies have shown antiparasitic activity of myrrh extracts against Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke) in animal models.
[9, 10]Musculoskeletal System
Arthritis and joint pain (topical and internal)
In TCM, the Mo Yao (myrrh) and Ru Xiang (frankincense) pair is a cornerstone combination for traumatic injury pain, swelling, and joint pain. Myrrhanol A demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity comparable to indomethacin in the rat adjuvant arthritis model. Al-Harbi et al. (1997) confirmed anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in standard pharmacological models. The opioid receptor-mediated analgesia (Dolara et al. 2000) provides an additional pain-relieving mechanism. Clinical evidence for myrrh specifically in arthritis is limited to traditional use and preclinical data.
[7, 8, 13]Traumatic injury, sprains, and contusions (topical)
Classical TCM indication for Mo Yao. Applied topically (as liniment, plaster, or diluted tincture) and taken internally to promote healing of traumatic injuries by 'invigorating blood and reducing swelling.' The anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and blood-moving properties combine to address pain, swelling, and bruising from acute injuries. One of the most commonly used herbs in traditional Chinese trauma medicine (Die Da, 'fall and strike' medicine).
[13, 14]Endocrine System
Hyperlipidemia and metabolic support
Some preliminary studies suggest myrrh may have lipid-lowering properties, though the evidence is much more robust for the related species Commiphora wightii (guggul). Myrrh extracts have shown modest effects on cholesterol and triglyceride levels in animal models. The relationship between C. myrrha and C. wightii (guggul) has led to some confusion in the literature. Clinical evidence for C. myrrha specifically in hyperlipidemia is limited.
[10]Blood glucose regulation
Some animal studies and preliminary human observations suggest myrrh may have hypoglycemic effects. The mechanism is not well characterized but may involve enhanced insulin sensitivity or glucose uptake. Patients with diabetes on hypoglycemic medications should monitor blood glucose when using myrrh therapeutically. Clinical evidence is too limited for formal recommendations.
[10]Energetics
Temperature
warm
Moisture
dry
Taste
Tissue States
cold/depression, damp/stagnation, damp/relaxation
Myrrh is consistently classified as warm and dry across Western herbal energetics, traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani medicine. In TCM, Mo Yao is categorized as bitter, pungent, and neutral-to-warm, entering the Heart, Liver, and Spleen meridians, with its primary function being to 'invigorate blood and dispel stasis' (huo xue qu yu). In Ayurveda, Bol/Bola is considered pungent, bitter, and astringent in taste (rasa), with a heating potency (virya) and pungent post-digestive effect (vipaka); it reduces Kapha and Vata while potentially aggravating Pitta in excess. In Western herbal energetics, myrrh is a warming, drying aromatic bitter that addresses cold/depressed tissue states (atonic, underactive mucous membranes with pale, boggy tissue), damp/stagnant states (congestion, poor circulation, stagnant wound healing), and damp/relaxation states (excessive, lax secretions in the respiratory and digestive tracts). It is specifically indicated where tissues are 'cold, damp, and lax' -- exactly the tissue picture of chronic, non-healing wounds, chronic pharyngitis, and sluggish digestion. CAVEAT: Herbal energetics are interpretive frameworks within traditional systems, not standardized across all practitioners.
Traditional Uses
Ancient Egyptian medicine (Ebers Papyrus, ca. 1550 BCE and earlier)
- Embalming and mummification -- myrrh was a key ingredient in natron-based embalming compounds and was inserted into body cavities during mummification
- Wound treatment and surgical dressing -- multiple prescriptions in the Ebers Papyrus include myrrh for wound care
- Treatment of skin diseases and sores
- Fumigation and temple incense (kyphi) for ritual purification and respiratory ailments
- Oral and dental preparations for mouth sores and toothache
- Contraceptive and menstruation-inducing pessaries
- Eye preparations for ophthalmic diseases
"The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1550 BCE), one of the oldest and most important surviving medical texts, contains numerous references to myrrh (designated 'antyw' in hieroglyphic texts) in therapeutic formulas. Prescription Eb. 541 describes a wound remedy containing myrrh, honey, and grease. Myrrh was considered among the most valuable materia medica of Egyptian medicine, imported via trade routes from the Land of Punt (likely modern Somalia/Eritrea). Queen Hatshepsut's famous expedition to Punt (ca. 1470 BCE) specifically sought myrrh trees for transplantation to the temple of Deir el-Bahari."
Biblical and Judaic tradition
- One of the three gifts of the Magi (along with gold and frankincense) presented to the infant Jesus -- symbolically associated with mortality, suffering, and healing
- Primary ingredient in the holy anointing oil of the Tabernacle (Exodus 30:23-25)
- Offered as a sedative analgesic mixture with wine at the crucifixion (Mark 15:23)
- Used in burial preparations (John 19:39-40, myrrh and aloes for burial of Jesus)
- Ingredient in incense and perfumery (Song of Solomon 1:13, Proverbs 7:17)
- Treatment of wounds and skin afflictions
"The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) contains numerous references to myrrh (Hebrew: mor or mur). In Exodus 30:23-25, myrrh is listed as the first ingredient in the sacred anointing oil: 'Take the finest spices: of liquid myrrh 500 shekels...' In the New Testament, myrrh appears at both the birth and death of Jesus -- as one of the gifts of the Magi (Matthew 2:11) and in the burial preparations (John 19:39). The Song of Solomon contains multiple references to myrrh as a precious perfume and symbol of the beloved."
Traditional Chinese medicine (Ben Cao Gangmu, Shennong Ben Cao Jing addenda, Tang-era texts)
- Invigorating blood and dispelling blood stasis (huo xue qu yu) -- the primary TCM indication
- Reducing swelling and promoting healing of traumatic injuries (Die Da medicine)
- Alleviating pain from blood stasis (chest pain, abdominal pain, dysmenorrhea)
- Promoting healing of chronic sores, ulcers, and carbuncles
- Treating amenorrhea and painful menstruation with blood stasis pattern
"Mo Yao (myrrh) is classified in Chinese medicine as an herb that 'invigorates blood and dispels stasis' (huo xue qu yu yao). The Ben Cao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica, Li Shizhen, 1578) describes Mo Yao as: 'bitter and neutral in taste, entering the Liver meridian. It disperses blood stasis, soothes pain, and promotes generation of new flesh in sores and wounds.' Mo Yao is classically paired with Ru Xiang (frankincense, Boswellia carterii) in numerous formulas -- the combination is considered synergistic, with Mo Yao excelling at 'dispersing blood' and Ru Xiang at 'moving qi.' Key formulas include Shi Xiao San (Sudden Smile Powder), Qi Li San (Seven Thousandths of a Tael Powder), and Jin Gu Die Shang Wan (Die Da pills)."
Ayurveda and Indian traditional medicine
- Treatment of amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and uterine disorders
- Blood purification (rakta shodhana) and circulation enhancement
- Treatment of mouth ulcers, gingivitis, and dental problems
- Wound healing and management of chronic ulcers
- Joint pain and inflammatory conditions (as part of guggulu-based formulas)
- Digestive stimulant and carminative for weak digestion
"In Ayurveda, myrrh is known as Bol or Bola (from the Arabic). It is classified as bitter and pungent in taste (rasa), heating in potency (virya), and pungent in post-digestive effect (vipaka). It reduces Kapha and Vata doshas while potentially increasing Pitta. Ayurvedic texts describe it as deepana (digestive stimulant), vedanasthapana (analgesic), shothahara (anti-inflammatory), and artavajanana (emmenagogue). Note: The closely related Commiphora wightii (Indian bdellium, guggulu) is more widely used in Ayurvedic practice than C. myrrha, and the two are sometimes confused in traditional texts. True myrrh (Bol/Bola) is distinguished from guggulu in contemporary Ayurvedic pharmacopeias."
Unani/Islamic medicine (Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and later texts)
- Treatment of wounds, ulcers, and skin diseases
- Oral and dental preparations for mouth infections and toothache
- Emmenagogue for amenorrhea and uterine congestion
- Expectorant for chronic cough and respiratory catarrh
- Treatment of gastrointestinal complaints and weak digestion
- Antidote preparations and theriac (complex electuary) formulas
"Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980-1037 CE) described murr (myrrh) in Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine) as hot in the second degree and dry in the second degree, with properties including wound healing, astringent, expectorant, and emmenagogue. He recommended it for oral ulcers, chronic cough, wounds, and menstrual irregularity. Myrrh was a standard ingredient in the famous theriac (tiryaq) preparations used as universal antidotes throughout the medieval Islamic and European pharmacopeias."
[10]
Greek and Roman medicine (Dioscorides, Galen, Pliny)
- Wound healing and battlefield surgery dressing
- Treatment of cough, respiratory complaints, and hoarseness
- Oral and dental care for loose teeth and gum disease
- Treatment of skin ulcers and chronic sores
- Emmenagogue and abortifacient (in high doses)
- Antidote and theriac ingredient
"Dioscorides (De Materia Medica, ca. 65 CE) described myrrh extensively, noting its warming properties and recommending it for cough, dyspnea, chest conditions, wounds, and as an emmenagogue. He distinguished several grades of myrrh and described adulteration methods to watch for. Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia, ca. 77 CE) discussed myrrh's origins, trade, and medical uses, noting it was 'especially useful for mouth conditions and wounds.' Galen (ca. 130-200 CE) included myrrh in numerous compound formulas and classified it as warming and drying."
Eclectic and Physiomedical medicine (19th-century American)
- Tonic astringent for chronic mucous membrane conditions with relaxed, atonic tissue
- Gargle and mouthwash for chronic sore throat, tonsillitis, and aphthous ulcers
- Expectorant for chronic bronchial catarrh with profuse secretions
- Emmenagogue for amenorrhea from uterine atony
- External application for indolent ulcers, gangrenous conditions, and wounds
- Component of 'Compound Tincture of Myrrh' (Tinctura Myrrhae Composita) combined with capsicum
"Felter and Lloyd's King's American Dispensatory (1898) describes myrrh as: 'Stimulant, tonic, expectorant, emmenagogue... Myrrh is useful in all cases where a stimulant and tonic is required, and particularly when there is a relaxed condition of the tissues with profuse, catarrhal discharges.' The Eclectics specifically recommended myrrh for 'enfeebled mucous membranes with tendency to ulceration, and chronic catarrhal conditions with excessive secretion,' noting it as 'one of our best local applications for spongy, ulcerated gums, and for aphthous sore mouth.'"
Modern Research
Comprehensive review of the chemistry and biological activities of myrrh
Su et al. (2011) published an extensive review covering the chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, and clinical applications of Commiphora myrrha and related species. The review integrated data from phytochemical analyses, in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies, and clinical reports.
Findings: Documented over 300 individual chemical constituents isolated from myrrh, categorized into sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, steroids, lignans, flavonoids, and polysaccharides. Confirmed significant antimicrobial activity against a wide range of pathogens including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Anti-inflammatory activity was demonstrated through multiple mechanisms including inhibition of NO, PGE2, and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Analgesic effects were confirmed through opioid receptor interaction studies. Anticancer activity was noted in vitro against multiple cell lines. The review supported the therapeutic value of myrrh for oral inflammation, wound healing, and pain management while noting the need for more rigorous clinical trials.
Limitations: Narrative review without formal systematic methodology or quality assessment. Heterogeneity of preparations and extracts studied across the included literature. Many pharmacological studies used in vitro systems or animal models with uncertain translation to clinical practice.
[10]
Analgesic effects of myrrh sesquiterpenes via opioid receptor interaction
Dolara et al. (2000) investigated the analgesic activity of myrrh and its individual sesquiterpene constituents, providing the first evidence of opioid receptor-mediated analgesia from Commiphora myrrha.
Findings: Myrrh water/ethanol extract and isolated sesquiterpenes (particularly furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and isofuranogermacrene/lindestrene) produced significant analgesic effects in mice using standard pharmacological tests (hot-plate test, acetic acid writhing test). Critically, the analgesic effect was blocked by naloxone, a specific opioid receptor antagonist, demonstrating that the mechanism of action involves interaction with opioid receptors in the central nervous system. The active compounds were concentrated in the volatile oil fraction. This finding provided a scientific rationale for the extensive historical use of myrrh as an analgesic, predating opium use in some ancient traditions.
Limitations: Animal study (mice); direct extrapolation to human analgesic efficacy and dosing is uncertain. The potency relative to established opioid analgesics is low. The relative contribution of opioid receptor interaction vs. other analgesic mechanisms (anti-inflammatory, local anesthetic) in the overall clinical analgesic effect of myrrh is not determined.
[7]
Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of myrrh in animal models
Al-Harbi et al. (1997) conducted a comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of Commiphora molmol (= C. myrrha) oleo-gum-resin in multiple standard anti-inflammatory and analgesic animal models.
Findings: Myrrh oleo-gum-resin suspension (at doses of 100-500 mg/kg orally) produced significant dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effects in the carrageenan-induced paw edema test, cotton pellet granuloma test, and adjuvant arthritis model in rats. Analgesic activity was confirmed in the hot-plate test and acetic acid writhing test in mice. Anti-pyretic activity was also demonstrated. The anti-inflammatory potency in the adjuvant arthritis model was particularly notable, suggesting potential relevance for chronic inflammatory conditions. Acute toxicity testing (LD50) indicated a favorable safety margin.
Limitations: Animal models only; clinical applicability is inferred but not directly demonstrated. The crude oleo-gum-resin was used rather than isolated compounds, making it difficult to identify specific active principles responsible for effects. Dosing in animal models does not directly translate to human therapeutic doses.
[8]
Mirazid (myrrh-based drug) for schistosomiasis treatment
Sheir et al. (2001) conducted a clinical study of Mirazid, an Egyptian proprietary drug derived from myrrh oleo-gum-resin, for the treatment of schistosomiasis (Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium) in Egyptian patients.
Findings: In the initial studies, Mirazid (600 mg/day for 6 consecutive days, given as soft gelatin capsules on an empty stomach) demonstrated significant antiparasitic efficacy against S. mansoni and S. haematobium, with parasitological cure rates of approximately 91.7% for S. haematobium and 76.2% for S. mansoni as measured by egg reduction in stool and urine samples. The drug was well tolerated with minimal side effects (mild abdominal cramping in some patients). These results generated significant initial excitement for a natural alternative to praziquantel.
Limitations: Subsequent studies by other research groups reported lower cure rates (some as low as 8-10%), raising questions about reproducibility and appropriate dosing. Myrrh-based treatment for schistosomiasis remains controversial. Praziquantel remains the standard of care. The initial promising results have not been consistently replicated in larger, independent studies. Mirazid received temporary registration in Egypt but is not widely accepted internationally for this indication.
[9]
Antimicrobial activity of myrrh essential oil and resin extracts
Multiple in vitro studies have evaluated the antimicrobial spectrum of myrrh essential oil and various extracts against bacterial, fungal, and parasitic organisms.
Findings: Myrrh essential oil and hydroalcoholic extracts demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against clinically relevant organisms including: Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus including MRSA, Streptococcus pyogenes, S. mutans, Enterococcus faecalis), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa -- generally less susceptible), fungi (Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, dermatophytes), and parasites (Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciola hepatica cercariae). The sesquiterpene-rich volatile oil showed the strongest antibacterial activity, with MIC values in the range of 0.5-2 mg/mL against susceptible Gram-positive organisms. The resin fraction also contributed antimicrobial effects. Activity against oral pathogens (S. mutans, P. gingivalis) supports the pharmacopeial indication for oral mucositis.
Limitations: In vitro activity does not directly predict clinical efficacy. MIC values are generally higher than those of pharmaceutical antibiotics, suggesting myrrh is best suited as a topical antimicrobial or as part of multi-herb formulas rather than as a systemic anti-infective. Standardization of preparations across studies is variable. Limited clinical antimicrobial efficacy data.
Cytotoxic and anticancer activity of myrrh constituents
Several in vitro and in vivo studies have investigated the anticancer properties of myrrh extracts and isolated compounds, particularly sesquiterpenes and triterpenes.
Findings: Myrrh extracts and isolated compounds (including beta-elemene, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, and various triterpenes) demonstrated cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell lines including breast (MCF-7), prostate (PC-3), lung (A549), and liver (HepG2) cancer cells. Beta-elemene, also found in Curcuma species, has been extensively studied as an anticancer agent in China, with clinical trials supporting its use as an adjunctive cancer therapy. Myrrh sesquiterpenes induced apoptosis and inhibited proliferation through multiple pathways including caspase activation, cell cycle arrest, and NF-kB inhibition. Some in vivo studies showed tumor growth inhibition in xenograft models.
Limitations: Predominantly in vitro studies with limited clinical translation for myrrh specifically. Beta-elemene clinical research has primarily used Curcuma-derived sources rather than myrrh. Concentrations required for cytotoxicity in vitro may not be achievable through oral administration of myrrh. Myrrh should NOT be promoted as a cancer treatment based on this preliminary evidence.
[10]
Anti-inflammatory polypodane triterpenes from myrrh (myrrhanol A and myrrhanone A)
Japanese researchers isolated and characterized novel polypodane-type triterpenes from Commiphora myrrha and evaluated their anti-inflammatory activity in rat models.
Findings: Myrrhanol A and myrrhanone A were isolated from the methanol extract of myrrh resin. In the rat adjuvant arthritis model, myrrhanol A demonstrated anti-inflammatory potency comparable to indomethacin, a standard NSAID. The compound significantly suppressed elevated levels of nitric oxide and TNF-alpha in arthritic rats. These findings identified a novel class of anti-inflammatory compounds in myrrh distinct from the sesquiterpenes of the volatile oil and the commiphoric acids of the resin. The results provide additional pharmacological support for the traditional anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic use of myrrh.
Limitations: Animal model; clinical applicability is inferred. The yield of myrrhanol A from crude myrrh is not specified, making it difficult to determine whether therapeutic concentrations are achieved with standard myrrh dosing. Single animal model (adjuvant arthritis).
[10]
Myrrh for oral health: antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens
In vitro studies evaluating the antimicrobial effects of myrrh tincture and essential oil against common oral pathogens, supporting the pharmacopeial indication for oral inflammation.
Findings: Myrrh tincture and essential oil showed significant inhibitory activity against key oral pathogens including Streptococcus mutans (the primary causative organism of dental caries), Porphyromonas gingivalis (implicated in periodontitis), and Candida albicans (oral thrush). The combined antimicrobial and astringent action provides a dual mechanism for managing oral mucosal inflammation. Commercial mouthwash preparations containing myrrh have shown clinical benefit in reducing gingival inflammation and plaque scores in small clinical studies.
Limitations: Primarily in vitro data. Clinical studies of myrrh-containing mouthwashes are limited in size and methodology. The specific contribution of myrrh vs. other ingredients in commercial combination products is difficult to isolate. Standardization of myrrh content varies across preparations.
Preparations & Dosage
Tincture
Strength: 1:5 in 90% ethanol (BP standard). The Eclectic preparation 'Compound Tincture of Myrrh' (Tinctura Myrrhae Composita) combined myrrh with capsicum in a 1:5 ratio for enhanced stimulating action.
Use finely powdered or crushed myrrh oleo-gum-resin. Standard maceration: 1:5 ratio in 90% ethanol (high alcohol concentration is essential because the resin fraction is poorly soluble in lower-strength alcohol, and the gum fraction is insoluble in alcohol). Macerate for 2-4 weeks with frequent shaking/agitation, as the resin tends to clump and requires vigorous mixing to maximize extraction. Press and filter through fine cloth or paper. The resulting tincture is a clear, reddish-amber to dark brown liquid with the characteristic bitter, aromatic taste and balsamic odor of myrrh. For oral/topical application: dilute 5-10 drops in a small amount of warm water and apply directly to gums, mouth ulcers, or gargle for throat inflammation. For internal use: take in water or mixed with other tinctures.
1-4 mL (20-80 drops) three times daily for internal use. For topical oral application: 5-10 drops undiluted or diluted in a small amount of warm water, applied directly to affected mucosa 2-3 times daily. For gargle: 30-60 drops in half a glass of warm water.
Two to three times daily
For acute conditions (oral inflammation, sore throat): 7-14 days. For chronic conditions: up to 4-6 weeks with practitioner supervision. Commission E recommends consultation with a healthcare provider if symptoms persist beyond 1 week.
Not recommended for children under 6 years of age. For children 6-12 years: half adult dose for internal use under practitioner guidance. Topical oral application in diluted form may be used with caution.
Tincture is the most common and versatile preparation of myrrh in Western herbal practice. The high alcohol content (90%) is required because the resin fraction, which contains many of the active antimicrobial and astringent compounds (commiphoric acids, commiferin), is only soluble in strong alcohol. Lower-strength alcohol produces an incomplete extraction with a cloudy, less effective preparation. The British Pharmacopoeia specifies the official Tinctura Myrrhae. For topical oral application, the tincture is the Commission E-approved preparation. Myrrh tincture is frequently combined with other tinctures for specific indications: with Calendula tincture for wound care, with Salvia (sage) tincture for sore throat gargles, or with Echinacea tincture for immune support.
Capsule / Powder
Strength: 300-600 mg per capsule of powdered oleo-gum-resin
Finely powdered myrrh oleo-gum-resin filled into vegetarian or gelatin capsules. The resin should be powdered as finely as possible (grinding may require chilling the resin first, as warmth makes it sticky and gummy). Standardized capsule products are also available commercially.
300-600 mg powdered myrrh oleo-gum-resin, two to three times daily with meals. Total daily dose typically 1-3 g.
Two to three times daily with meals
For acute conditions: 1-2 weeks. For chronic conditions: up to 6-8 weeks with practitioner supervision.
Not recommended for children under 12 years. Adolescents: reduced dose under practitioner guidance.
Capsules provide a convenient way to take myrrh internally, avoiding the intensely bitter taste. This was the form used in the Mirazid schistosomiasis trials (soft gelatin capsules containing myrrh extract). For internal therapeutic use targeting systemic effects (anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue, blood-moving in TCM), capsules may be preferred over tincture. However, for oral and pharyngeal conditions, the tincture applied topically is more appropriate as it provides direct mucosal contact.
Essential Oil
Strength: Pure essential oil (100%). Always dilute before application.
Myrrh essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of the crude oleo-gum-resin. The oil is a pale yellow to amber, somewhat viscous liquid with the characteristic warm, balsamic, slightly medicinal aroma. For topical use: dilute to 1-3% in a carrier oil (jojoba, coconut, or almond oil) before skin application. For oral care: add 1-2 drops to toothpaste or 2-3 drops in warm water for mouthwash. For steam inhalation: add 3-5 drops to a bowl of hot water and inhale vapours. For diffusion: use in an aromatherapy diffuser according to manufacturer directions.
Topical: 1-3% dilution in carrier oil (approximately 3-9 drops per tablespoon of carrier oil). Do NOT take myrrh essential oil internally without professional guidance. For mouthwash: 2-3 drops in 100 mL warm water. For inhalation: 3-5 drops in hot water.
Topical application 2-3 times daily. Inhalation 1-2 times daily.
Up to 2-3 weeks for topical applications.
Not recommended for children under 6 years. For children 6-12 years: use at 0.5-1% dilution under adult supervision.
Myrrh essential oil contains the concentrated sesquiterpene fraction, including the analgesic furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and the antimicrobial curzerene. It does NOT contain the water-soluble gum or much of the resin fraction. Therefore, the essential oil provides primarily antimicrobial and analgesic effects but lacks the full astringent activity of the whole oleo-gum-resin tincture. For wound care, combining diluted essential oil with a whole-resin tincture application provides the broadest spectrum of activity. Myrrh essential oil may cause skin sensitization in some individuals; perform a patch test before widespread topical application.
Decoction
Strength: 2-4 g myrrh per 500 mL water
Add 1-2 teaspoons (2-4 g) of crushed or powdered myrrh oleo-gum-resin to 500 mL of cold water. Bring to a boil, then simmer gently for 15-20 minutes. Strain through a fine cloth (the gum will dissolve but resin particles may remain suspended). The resulting liquid will be slightly cloudy, yellowish to brown, bitter, and aromatic. Note: water extraction primarily dissolves the gum fraction; the resin and volatile oil are poorly water-soluble. A hydroalcoholic preparation (tincture) provides more complete extraction.
One cup (approximately 150-200 mL) two to three times daily
Two to three times daily
Up to 2 weeks
Not recommended for young children. Half adult dose for children over 12 under practitioner guidance.
Decoction is a traditional preparation method but less efficient than tincture for extracting myrrh's active compounds. The water-soluble gum fraction (arabinogalactans) is well extracted, providing demulcent and potential immunomodulatory effects. However, the resin fraction (commiphoric acids, commiferin) and much of the volatile oil are poorly water-soluble and are lost or inadequately extracted. For oral conditions, the tincture is preferred. In TCM, Mo Yao is typically processed by dry-frying (chao) and then decocted with other herbs in formula; the addition of vinegar or wine to the decoction improves resin solubility.
Salve / Ointment
Strength: Approximately 2-5% myrrh in the finished preparation
Melt 120 mL (1/2 cup) of carrier oil (olive oil or coconut oil) with 15-30 g beeswax in a double boiler. When the beeswax is fully melted, remove from heat and stir in 5-10 mL myrrh tincture and/or 10-20 drops myrrh essential oil. Optionally add other complementary essential oils or herbal oils (calendula-infused oil, tea tree oil, lavender oil). Stir well as the mixture cools and pour into clean containers. Allow to set completely before capping.
Apply a thin layer to affected area 2-3 times daily
Two to three times daily
Until wound or skin condition has resolved
Use with caution in children under 6. Half-strength formulation (reduce essential oil by 50%) for children 6-12.
Myrrh salve is a traditional topical preparation for wound care, minor burns, chapped skin, hemorrhoids, and skin ulcers. The combination of myrrh's antimicrobial, astringent, and vulnerary properties with the skin-protective effects of beeswax and carrier oil creates an effective wound-healing preparation. Can be combined with calendula and/or comfrey for enhanced wound healing. This preparation is similar to ancient Egyptian wound treatments that combined myrrh with fats and honey.
Glycerite
Strength: 1:5 in vegetable glycerin
Combine finely powdered myrrh oleo-gum-resin with vegetable glycerin in a 1:5 ratio. The glycerin will partially dissolve both gum and resin fractions. Allow to macerate for 2-4 weeks with daily shaking. Strain through fine cloth. The glycerite is alcohol-free and suitable for oral topical application in patients who wish to avoid alcohol.
2-5 mL (40-100 drops) three times daily, or applied directly to oral mucosa
Two to three times daily
Up to 2-3 weeks
Half adult dose for children over 6 under practitioner guidance. Suitable for children who cannot tolerate alcohol-based tincture.
The glycerite offers an alcohol-free alternative for oral and topical use. Glycerin partially dissolves both the gum and resin fractions but is less efficient than 90% ethanol for resin extraction. The sweet taste of glycerin partly masks myrrh's bitterness. Particularly useful for oral mucosa conditions in patients avoiding alcohol (children, recovering alcoholics, those with inflamed oral tissue where high-proof alcohol may cause stinging).
[4]
Safety & Interactions
Class 2a
Not to be used during pregnancy (AHPA Botanical Safety Handbook)
Contraindications
Myrrh is classified as AHPA Class 2a (contraindicated in pregnancy) due to its well-documented emmenagogue and potential uterine-stimulant activity. Multiple traditional systems (TCM, Ayurveda, Unani, Eclectic) identify myrrh as a uterine stimulant capable of promoting menstrual flow. The blood-moving (huo xue) classification in TCM explicitly warns against use in pregnancy. While no controlled studies have assessed myrrh's teratogenic potential in humans, the historical and pharmacological evidence for uterine stimulation warrants an absolute contraindication during pregnancy. This applies to therapeutic doses; exposure to myrrh in incense or trace amounts in cosmetics is not considered a significant risk.
Cross-sensitization may occur among Burseraceae and other balsam-type resins. Individuals with known allergy to myrrh, frankincense (Boswellia), balsam of Peru, or related aromatic resins should avoid myrrh products. Contact dermatitis has been reported with topical myrrh application in sensitized individuals.
Due to myrrh's blood-moving and emmenagogue properties, it should be avoided in situations of active uterine bleeding where stimulation of blood flow could exacerbate the condition. In TCM, blood-moving herbs are specifically contraindicated in excessive menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia) and post-partum hemorrhage.
Drug Interactions
| Drug / Class | Severity | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|
| Warfarin, heparin, and other anticoagulants (Anticoagulants) | theoretical | Myrrh's blood-moving properties (TCM classification) and potential effects on platelet function could theoretically enhance anticoagulant effects, increasing bleeding risk. The mechanism is not well characterized pharmacologically for myrrh specifically but is based on traditional classification and the general pharmacological profile. |
| Insulin, metformin, sulfonylureas, and other antidiabetic medications (Hypoglycemic agents) | theoretical | Some animal studies suggest myrrh may have hypoglycemic effects. Combination with pharmaceutical hypoglycemic agents could theoretically result in additive blood glucose lowering and increased risk of hypoglycemia. |
| Thyroid medications (levothyroxine) (Thyroid hormones) | theoretical | Some reports suggest Commiphora species (particularly C. mukul/C. wightii guggul) may affect thyroid function by stimulating thyroid hormone production. While this effect is primarily attributed to guggulsterones in C. wightii rather than constituents of C. myrrha, the taxonomic relatedness has led to theoretical concern. Cross-contamination or substitution of C. wightii for C. myrrha in some commercial products is possible. |
Pregnancy & Lactation
Pregnancy
unsafe
Lactation
insufficient data
Pregnancy: Myrrh is contraindicated in pregnancy (AHPA Class 2a) due to its well-documented emmenagogue and uterine-stimulant properties. It is classified as a blood-moving (huo xue) herb in TCM, a category specifically contraindicated in pregnancy. Ayurvedic and Unani traditions similarly warn against its use during pregnancy. No controlled human studies of myrrh safety in pregnancy exist, but the consistent traditional warnings across multiple independent medical systems, combined with the pharmacological evidence for uterine stimulation, support a classification of 'unsafe' in pregnancy at therapeutic doses. Lactation: Insufficient data. No studies have evaluated the safety of myrrh during breastfeeding or whether myrrh constituents are excreted in breast milk. As a precaution, therapeutic doses should be avoided during lactation.
Adverse Effects
References
Monograph Sources
- [1] German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM). Commission E Monograph: Myrrh (Myrrha). Bundesanzeiger (Federal Gazette), Germany. Approved: December 5, 1984. Republished in: Blumenthal M, et al. The Complete German Commission E Monographs. (1998) . ISBN: 978-0965555500
- [2] European Medicines Agency Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC). European Union herbal monograph on Commiphora molmol Engler, gummi-resina. EMA/HMPC/96912/2014 (2014)
- [3] World Health Organization. WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 1: Myrrha. World Health Organization, Geneva (1999) . ISBN: 978-9241545174
- [4] Hoffmann D. Medical Herbalism: The Science and Practice of Herbal Medicine. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT (2003) . ISBN: 978-0892817498
- [5] Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Riggins CW, Rister RS (eds.). The Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. American Botanical Council, Austin, TX (1998) . ISBN: 978-0965555500
- [6] Gardner Z, McGuffin M (eds.). American Herbal Products Association Botanical Safety Handbook, 2nd edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2013) . ISBN: 978-1466516946
Clinical Studies
- [7] Dolara P, Luceri C, Ghelardini C, Monserrat C, Aiolli S, Luceri F, Lodovici M, Menichetti S, Romanelli MN. Analgesic effects of myrrh. Nature (2000) ; 379 : 29 . DOI: 10.1038/379029a0 . PMID: 8538737
- [8] Al-Harbi MM, Qureshi S, Raza M, Ahmed MM, Giangreco AB, Shah AH. Antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity of Commiphora molmol. J Ethnopharmacol (1997) ; 47 : 129-135
- [9] Sheir Z, Nasr AA, Massoud A, Salama O, Badra GA, El-Shennawy H, Hassan N, Hammad SM. A safe, effective, herbal antischistosomal therapy derived from myrrh. Am J Trop Med Hyg (2001) ; 65 : 700-704 . DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.700 . PMID: 11791957
- [10] Su S, Wang T, Duan J, Zhou W, Hua Y, Tang Y, Yu L, Qian D. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of different extracts of Commiphora myrrha. J Ethnopharmacol (2011) ; 134 : 251-258 . DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.12.003 . PMID: 21167270
Traditional Texts
- [11] Anonymous (Ancient Egyptian). Ebers Papyrus (Papyrus Ebers). Original manuscript ca. 1550 BCE, University of Leipzig. Translated by: Bryan CP (1930) 'The Papyrus Ebers,' Geoffrey Bles, London (-1550)
- [12] Felter HW, Lloyd JU. King's American Dispensatory, 18th edition (originally published 1898; reprinted 1922). Ohio Valley Company, Cincinnati. Reprinted: Eclectic Medical Publications, Portland, OR (1922)
- [13] Bensky D, Clavey S, Stoger E. Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, 3rd edition. Eastland Press, Seattle, WA (2004) . ISBN: 978-0939616428
- [14] Chen JK, Chen TT. Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology. Art of Medicine Press, City of Industry, CA (2004) . ISBN: 978-0974063508
Pharmacopeias & Reviews
- [15] British Pharmacopoeia Commission. British Pharmacopoeia: Myrrh and Myrrh Tincture monographs. The Stationery Office, London (2024)
- [16] European Pharmacopoeia Commission. European Pharmacopoeia, 11th edition: Myrrh (Myrrha). Council of Europe, Strasbourg (2023)
Last updated: 2026-03-02 | Status: review
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